The Iguazu Falls on the Brazil-Argentine border © Wikicommons
‘Floods are ‘acts of God’, but flood losses are largely acts of man’ (Gilbert F. White)
The biblical story of Noah and the great flood recounts that it rained for 40 days and 40 nights. Often regarded as allegorical or mythological rather than historical, it is a scenario that could potentially occur again… In times when many are praying for rain, and vast regions suffer from prolonged drought, leaving the land completely arid, we must also remain acutely aware of the devastation that water can bring when it arrives in excessive amounts and with overwhelming speed. The earliest scientifically documented flood occurred around 5600 BCE, when the Mediterranean Sea breached into the Black Sea basin. More recent events of significant magnitude include the floods in China during the 1930s, when the Yellow, Yangtze, and Huai rivers overflowed, as well as the North Sea floods of 1953, which affected the Netherlands, the UK, and Belgium. Other notable examples include the Boscastle flood in England in 2004 and the Indian Ocean tsunami of the same year.
Floods can occur due to a variety of natural and human-induced factors, not solely because of heavy rainfall. The rapid melting of snow or ice during warmer seasons can increase river levels, while high winds and low pressure during hurricanes or cyclones may push seawater onto land (for example, Hurricane Katrina in 2005). Volcanic activity can create natural dams that later fail, releasing stored water, and earthquakes can trigger catastrophic tsunamis.
In addition to these natural incidents, which may not be easily predicted, humans also bear responsibility for some of these disasters. Intensive urbanisation has led to an increase in impermeable surfaces, preventing water absorption into the ground. Furthermore, inadequate or clogged drainage infrastructure exacerbates urban flooding. Meanwhile, the loss of trees reduces soil absorption and increases runoff into rivers. Dams may collapse, resulting in catastrophic disasters and significant human loss. Agricultural practices and mining can also alter water flow and soil stability.
The truth is that, most often, floods result from a combination of natural and human-induced factors. Despite what one might think, floods remain the most common natural disasters in Europe. While wildfires may be more visually striking and associated with dramatic destruction, floods cause more widespread and frequent damage, impacting both rural and urban areas. This is partly due to the continent’s geography, climate, and high levels of urbanisation near water bodies. Unfortunately, as climate change exacerbates extreme weather conditions, floods are expected to become even more prevalent.
Each year, floods in Europe result in significant economic losses. For example, the European Environment Agency (EEA) reported that weather- and climate-related extremes, including floods, caused economic losses of around €13.4 billion in 2023. Meanwhile, in 2024, property insurance payouts in the United Kingdom alone reached £5.5 billion, the highest since 2007.
It is estimated that weather- and climate-related extreme conditions have resulted in economic losses totalling €738 billion in the EU since the 1980s, with floods accounting for more than forty percent of this figure.
On a global scale, insured losses due to natural disasters, including floods, are estimated to have exceeded $135 billion in 2024, marking the fifth consecutive year with losses surpassing the $100 billion threshold.
These figures underscore the immense economic burden that floods impose on Europe’s economy each year, highlighting the urgent need for effective flood management and mitigation strategies. While we cannot prevent most of these natural disasters, we can and should prepare to limit their impact and reduce losses.
Preparing for floods involves proactive planning, building resilient infrastructure, and educating communities to minimise risks and damage. Staying informed about weather conditions should be the first step, using reliable sources for flood alerts and warnings and, more importantly, understanding the flood risks for specific areas. Creating a flood emergency plan, with evacuation routes, designated meeting points, and emergency contacts, should be the next step, alongside assembling a basic emergency kit. If possible, many experts advise flood-proofing homes by using waterproof coatings to prevent seepage, raising electrical panels, appliances, and heating systems above expected flood levels, preventing sewage backup during flooding, and using sandbags or temporary flood barriers around the house if necessary.
On a larger scale, we should support reforestation and wetland conservation to reduce runoff, educate children about flood safety, and advocate for policies that address climate resilience. Finally, it is advisable to review home insurance conditions, as standard policies often do not cover flood damage.
We’ve all seen that in the event of a disaster, people tend to act chaotically, with many not following the rules, often resulting in further chaos and loss. This is why it is imperative to follow instructions from authorities regarding evacuation orders and not to ignore flood warnings. Additionally, you should avoid driving through floodwaters. Studies show that just 15 cm of moving water can knock you off your feet, and 60 cm can sweep away vehicles. Furthermore, floodwaters may be contaminated with sewage or chemicals.
By combining individual, community, and governmental efforts, we can significantly reduce the impact of floods and improve resilience. The European Union has several institutions and agencies involved in flood prevention, management, and response. These bodies work together to coordinate efforts, provide funding, and offer technical support to EU member states in combating floods and dealing with their aftermath.
The EU policies related to flood prevention and management are initiated by the European Commission through the Directorate-General for Environment, which is responsible for environmental protection policies, including flood risk management, and the Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (ECHO). ECHO provides humanitarian aid and civil protection assistance during disasters, including floods. It coordinates emergency response and recovery efforts and allocates funding for disaster relief. ECHO also facilitates cross-border cooperation in disaster response.
As a legislative body, the European Parliament plays a key role in passing laws and regulations related to flood management. The European Environment Agency (EEA) supports EU flood policies by providing data and assessments related to climate change, hydrology, and water management. The European Flood Awareness System (EFAS), operated by the EEA, offers flood forecasts and warnings for EU member states. The European Investment Bank (EIB) provides financial support for projects related to flood prevention and recovery in affected regions. The European Union Strategy for the Danube Region (EUSDR) is a macro-regional strategy that includes flood risk management as a key priority, fostering cooperation among countries in the Danube River basin to prevent and mitigate flood risks. The EU Civil Protection Mechanism coordinates the response of EU member states to large-scale disasters, including floods, while the European Network of Flood Awareness (Floods Directive Network) serves as a platform for exchanging best practices and coordinating efforts among EU nations in line with EU regulations.
All these EU institutions work together to reduce the risk of floods, support prevention efforts, provide early warnings, and offer humanitarian aid and recovery assistance. This is achieved through cooperation, shared knowledge, and funding mechanisms.
The Floods Directive is one of the EU’s main legal instruments for managing flood risks. It requires member states to assess flood risks, develop and implement plans to reduce these risks, and involve local communities and stakeholders in flood risk management. This ensures public awareness and engagement in the process.
The EU has also a strategy on adaptation to climate change, which aims to enhance resilience to climate change impacts, including floods. The European Civil Protection Mechanism (EUCPM) has proven to be one of the most significant tools for supporting member states in disaster preparedness and response. It focuses on cross-border cooperation, emergency response coordination, and initiatives to improve flood management and disaster preparedness.
The Water Framework Directive focuses on improving the quality of water bodies, ensuring that rivers and watersheds are managed holistically, taking into account flood risks and water quality. It also promotes natural flood management solutions, such as restoring wetlands and floodplains, which can absorb excess water during floods.
Meanwhile, the EU promotes sustainable land use and urban planning to reduce flood risks. This is achieved by encouraging cities to incorporate green spaces, permeable surfaces, and water management systems that can reduce runoff and improve water absorption, as well as by implementing stricter regulations to prevent construction in high-risk areas.
In addition to these measures and mechanisms, several European countries have developed advanced flood management strategies. In this regard, the Netherlands is widely regarded as the most prepared and knowledgeable country when it comes to flood risk management. The country has centuries of experience in controlling flood risks due to its geographical conditions, as much of the nation lies below sea level. This has driven the development of highly advanced flood-prevention technologies. The first large-scale Dutch flood protection project dates back to the 13th century. The country has also learned from previous devastating floods, with protection measures continuously being improved.
This is why, today, the Dutch have one of the most sophisticated flood protection systems in the world. It includes an extensive network of dikes and sea walls to protect the land from rising sea levels and river floods, as well as a vast network of polders (land reclaimed from the sea) and canals to manage water levels and improve drainage. The Zuiderzee and Delta Works are notable examples of engineering projects designed to safeguard the country from storm surges. These systems feature large movable barriers that can be closed when a storm is imminent.
The Netherlands is also widely recognised as a model for integrated water management, coordinating flood risk management with sustainable water use, agriculture, and urban planning. The country has implemented an innovative programme that facilitates controlled flooding of rivers by widening riverbeds or lowering floodplains, significantly reducing the risk of catastrophic floods.
Last but not least, Dutch cities appear to be designed with flood prevention in mind. Rotterdam, for example, has implemented several water management techniques to this end. Green roofs on most buildings, highly permeable surfaces, and even water plazas—public spaces designed to hold water during heavy rainfall—are all intended to mitigate risks and prevent catastrophic damage. An early warning system, closely monitoring weather conditions, river levels, and sea levels, operated by the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), provides accurate forecasts and plays a key role in risk assessment. The Delta Commission, a Dutch organisation responsible for developing long-term flood protection strategies, aims to ensure that the country’s flood defences remain up to date and capable of handling the impacts of climate change. Rising sea levels and increased rainfall are particular concerns. This is why the country is actively involved in research and has integrated climate change projections into its flood risk management strategies. Moreover, the Dutch have very strict and rigorously regulated policies to manage flood risks. The National Flood Risk Management Programme includes flood protection targets and actions for different regions, coordinating the efforts of local and national authorities to mitigate these risks. It is also worth noting that in the Netherlands, everyone learns to swim from a very early age, and all schoolchildren are required to complete several swimming courses up to a relatively advanced level.
Over the years, the Netherlands has shared its risk management knowledge and expertise with other countries, offering technical assistance, particularly in coastal and riverine regions. While it is considered the leader in flood management, several other countries in Europe also have robust flood protection systems and can provide valuable know-how. Germany has invested heavily in flood prevention, particularly along its major rivers, the Elbe and the Rhine. France has developed comprehensive flood risk management strategies, especially in flood-prone areas such as the Rhône River and the south of France.
What all these countries aim to highlight is that climate change will significantly increase the risk of floods by intensifying precipitation and profoundly affecting natural water systems. Although there are still many ‘non-believers’, scientific evidence becomes clearer by the day. A warmer climate increases the atmosphere’s capacity to hold moisture, leading to more intense, prolonged, and heavier rainfall events. Similarly, climate change results in more frequent and severe storms, while global warming causes glaciers and polar ice caps to melt, contributing to rising sea levels with potentially devastating effects, particularly on coastal urban areas. As the oceans warm, the water expands, further raising sea levels and increasing the risk of coastal flooding.
In recent years, we have witnessed increasingly erratic weather patterns, such as snowfall in deserts and summer temperatures during winter. Unpredictable and extreme conditions, including heavy rains, storms, and prolonged wet periods, are part of this new trend. Some cities have experienced more rainfall in a few days than they typically receive in an entire year.
In October 2024, Valencia, a major city on Spain’s Mediterranean coast, experienced devastating and unprecedented flooding due to torrential rains. These floods resulted in more than 200 deaths, marking them as the deadliest natural disaster of the century in Spain. The flooding caused significant damage to homes, infrastructure, and businesses. Many of us have seen apocalyptic images on television or the internet, which were reminiscent of those from 20 years ago, following the devastating tsunami in Asia. Entire bridges and houses were swept away by the swirling waters, while people were trapped in basements or carried away by the floods.
There were numerous voices criticising the delayed flood warnings and the inefficiency of the emergency response. But in all probability, no country or authority is fully prepared for such unexpected scenarios. Nevertheless, valuable lessons and conclusions can certainly be drawn from such events. Factors considered decisive in the occurrence of floods of this magnitude, in the case of Spain, include human-induced climate change as well as the unusually high temperatures recorded in the Mediterranean Sea last year.
Also in 2024, September brought Storm Boris to Central and Eastern Europe, accompanied by record rainfall that led to severe flooding in Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Romania, and Hungary. The floods claimed 24 lives in the battle against the swirling waters. In total, nearly two million people across eight countries were affected, with significant economic impacts and losses estimated in the billions of euros.
According to scientists, human-induced climate change has practically doubled the likelihood of events similar to Storm Boris (World Weather Attribution). Additionally, because cities are warmer than their surrounding rural areas, this can intensify extreme rainfall in urban and densely populated regions. Heatwaves can harden soil, reducing its absorbency and further increasing the risk of flash flooding.
However, it is perhaps important to note that climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations living in flood-prone areas. Scientists suggest that extreme precipitation events will become more frequent and severe, particularly in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. By acknowledging, understanding, raising awareness of, and addressing the links between climate change and flooding, people can reduce the risks and impacts of future flood events—events that are undoubtedly on their way.
alexandra.paucescu@europe-diplomatic.eu
